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Which Of The Following Best Describes Public Service Journalism?

Written By Thursday, March 17, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Journalism genre

Citizen journalism, also known every bit collaborative media,[1] : 61 participatory journalism,[2] democratic journalism,[3] guerrilla journalism [4] or street journalism,[5] is based upon public citizens "playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and data."[half-dozen] Similarly, Courtney C. Radsch defines citizen journalism "as an alternative and activist class of news gathering and reporting that functions outside mainstream media institutions, often equally a response to shortcomings in the professional journalistic field, that uses like journalistic practices but is driven past different objectives and ideals and relies on alternative sources of legitimacy than traditional or mainstream journalism".[7] Jay Rosen offers a simpler definition: "When the people formerly known as the audience apply the press tools they have in their possession to inform one another."[8] The underlying principle of citizen journalism is that ordinary people, not professional person journalists, can exist the main creators and distributors or news.[9] Denizen journalism should non exist confused with community journalism or civic journalism, both of which are skillful past professional journalists; collaborative journalism, which is the do of professional and non-professional journalists working together;[10] and social journalism, which denotes a digital publication with a hybrid of professional and non-professional journalism.

Citizen journalism is a specific form of both citizen media and user-generated content (UGC). Past juxtaposing the term "citizen", with its attendant qualities of borough-mindedness and social responsibility, with that of "journalism", which refers to a item profession, Courtney C. Radsch argues that this term all-time describes this particular form of online and digital journalism conducted past amateurs because it underscores the link between the exercise of journalism and its relation to the political and public sphere.[xi]

Citizen journalism was made more feasible by the development of various online cyberspace platforms.[ix] New media technology, such equally social networking and media-sharing websites, in add-on to the increasing prevalence of cellular telephones, take made denizen journalism more accessible to people worldwide. Contempo advances in new media accept started to have a profound political impact.[12] Due to the availability of technology, citizens often tin report breaking news more speedily than traditional media reporters. Notable examples of denizen journalism reporting from major world events are, the 2010 Haiti convulsion, the Arab Bound, the Occupy Wall Street motility, the 2013 protests in Turkey, the Euromaidan events in Ukraine, and Syrian Civil War, the 2014 Ferguson unrest and the Black Lives Matter movement.

Being that Denizen journalism is yet to develop a conceptual framework and guiding principles, it tin can be heavily opinionated and subjective, making it more supplemental than master in terms of forming public opinion.[9] Critics of the miracle, including professional journalists and news organizations, merits that citizen journalism is unregulated, amateur, and haphazard in quality and coverage. Furthermore, Citizen journalists, due to their lack of professional affiliation, are thought to lack resources every bit well as focus on how best to serve the public.[9]

Theory [edit]

Denizen journalism, as a class of alternative media, presents a "radical challenge to the professionalized and institutionalized practices of the mainstream media".[13]

According to Flew, there take been three elements critical to the rise of citizen journalism: open publishing, collaborative editing, and distributed content.[14] Mark Glaser said in 2006:[15]

…people without professional person journalism preparation tin can use the tools of modern technology and the global distribution of the Net to create, broaden or fact-check media on their own or in collaboration with others.

In What is Participatory Journalism? (2003),[16] J. D. Lasica classifies media for citizen journalism into the following types:

  1. Audience participation (such as user comments attached to news stories, personal blogs, photographs or video footage captured from personal mobile cameras, or local news written past residents of a customs)
  2. Independent news and data Websites (Consumer Reports, the Drudge Report)
  3. Full-fledged participatory news sites (one:convo, NowPublic, OhmyNews, DigitalJournal.com, GroundReport, 'Off-white Observer')
  4. Collaborative and contributory media sites (Slashdot, Kuro5hin, Newsvine)
  5. Other kinds of "sparse media" (mailing lists, email newsletters)
  6. Personal broadcasting sites (video broadcast sites such every bit KenRadio)

The literature of citizen, alternative, and participatory journalism is nearly ofttimes situated in a democratic context and theorized as a response to corporate news media dominated by an economic logic. Some scholars have sought to extend the report of citizen journalism beyond the developed Western world, including Sylvia Moretzsohn,[17] Courtney C. Radsch,[18] and Clemencia Rodríguez.[xix] Radsch, for instance, wrote that "Throughout the Arab world, denizen journalists accept emerged equally the vanguard of new social movements dedicated to promoting human rights and democratic values."[20]

Theories of citizenship [edit]

According to Vincent Campbell, theories of citizenship tin can be categorized into two cadre groups: those that consider journalism for citizenship, and those that consider journalism as citizenship. The classical model of citizenship is the base of the two theories of citizenship. The classical model is rooted in the ideology of informed citizens and places accent on the function of journalists rather than on citizens.[21]

The classical model has four main characteristics:

  • journalists' role of informing citizens
  • citizens are assumed to be informed if they regularly attend to the news they are supplied with
  • more informed citizens are more likely to participate
  • the more informed citizens participate, the more democratic a state is more than probable to be.[21]

The first characteristic upholds the theory that journalism is for citizens. One of the primary problems with this is that there is a normative judgement surrounding the amount and nature of information that citizens should have as well as what the relationship between the two should be. One branch of journalism for citizens is the "monitorial denizen" (coined by Michael Schudson). The "monitorial citizen" suggests that citizens accordingly and strategically select what news and information they consume. The "monitorial denizen" along with other forms of this ideology conceive individuals as those who practice things with information to enact change and citizenship. Notwithstanding, this production of information does non equal to an act of citizenship, but instead an act of journalism. Therefore, citizens and journalists are portrayed equally distinctive roles whereas journalism is used by citizens for citizenship and conversely, journalists serve citizens.[21]

The second theory considers journalism every bit citizenship. This theory focuses on the different aspects of citizen identity and activity and understands citizen journalism as straight constituting citizenship. The term "liquid citizenship" (coined by Zizi Papacharissi) depicts how the lifestyles that individuals appoint in allow them to collaborate with other individuals and organizations, which thus remaps the conceptual periphery of civic, political, and social. This "liquid citizenship" allows the interactions and experiences that individuals face to go citizen journalism where they create their own forms of journalism. An alternative arroyo of journalism as citizenship rests between the distinction between "dutiful" citizens and "actualizing" citizens. "Dutiful" citizens engage in traditional citizenship practices, while "actualizing" citizens engage in non-traditional citizenship practices. This alternative approach suggests that "actualizing" citizens are less probable to use traditional media and more likely to use online and social media as sources of information, word, and participation. Thus, journalism in the form of online and social media practices become a form of citizenship for actualizing citizens.[21]

Criticisms have been made confronting citizen journalism, especially from amongst professionals in the field. Citizen journalists are oft portrayed as unreliable, biased and untrained – as opposed to professionals who accept "recognition, paid piece of work, unionized labour and behaviour that is often politically neutral and unaffiliated, at least in the merits if non in the actuality".[22]

History [edit]

Citizen journalist at English Defense League demonstration in London

Citizen announcer at English language Defense force League sit-in in London, 2011

The idea that every citizen can engage in acts of journalism has a long history in the United states of america. The contemporary citizen announcer motility emerged after journalists began to question the predictability of their coverage of events such as the 1988 U.Southward. presidential election. Those journalists became part of the public, or civic, journalism movement, which sought to counter the erosion of trust in the news media and the widespread disillusionment with politics and borough affairs.[23] [24] [25]

Initially, discussions of public journalism focused on promoting journalism that was "for the people" by irresolute the style professional reporters did their work. According to Leonard Witt, even so, early public journalism efforts were "often part of 'special projects' that were expensive, time-consuming, and episodic. Too frequently these projects dealt with an result and moved on. Professional journalists were driving the word. They would have the goal of doing a story on welfare-to-work (or the surroundings, or traffic problems, or the economy), and then they would recruit a cross-department of citizens and chronicle their points of view. Since not all reporters and editors bought into this form of public journalism, and some outright opposed it, reaching out to the people from the newsroom was never an piece of cake task." By 2003, in fact, the movement seemed to be petering out, with the Pew Center for Civic Journalism endmost its doors.[2]

Traditionally, the term "denizen journalism" has had a history of struggle with deliberating on a curtailed and mutually agreed upon definition. Even today, the term lacks a clear form of conceptualization. Although the term lacks conceptualization, alternative names of the term are unable to comprehensively capture the phenomenon. For example, one of the interchangeable names with "citizen journalism" is "user-generated content" (UGC). Notwithstanding, the effect with this alternative term is that it eliminates the potential borough virtues of citizen journalism and considers it to be stunted and proprietorial.[26]

With today's technology the citizen announcer motion has found new life every bit the boilerplate person can capture news and distribute it globally. As Yochai Benkler has noted, "the capacity to brand significant – to encode and decode humanly meaningful statements – and the capacity to communicate one's meaning around the earth, are held by, or readily available to, at least many hundreds of millions of users around the earth."[27] Professor Mary-Rose Papandrea, a constitutional police force professor at Boston College, notes in her article, Denizen Journalism and the Reporter's Privilege, that:[28]

[i]n many ways, the definition of "journalist" has at present come full circle. When the First Subpoena of the U.S. Constitution was adopted, "freedom of the press" referred quite literally to the freedom to publish using a printing printing, rather than the liberty of organized entities engaged in the publishing business. … It was not until the late nineteenth century that the concept of the "printing" metamorphized into a description of individuals and companies engaged in an often-competitive commercial media enterprise.

A recent[ when? ] trend in citizen journalism has been the emergence of what blogger Jeff Jarvis terms hyperlocal journalism, as online news sites invite contributions from local residents of their subscription areas, who often report on topics that conventional newspapers tend to ignore.[29] "Nosotros are the traditional journalism model turned upside down," explains Mary Lou Fulton, the publisher of the Northwest Voice in Bakersfield, California. "Instead of beingness the gatekeeper, telling people that what'southward important to them 'isn't news', we're but opening up the gates and letting people come on in. Nosotros are a better community newspaper for having thousands of readers who serve as the eyes and ears for the Phonation, rather than having everything filtered through the views of a small grouping of reporters and editors."[30]

Citizen journalists [edit]

According to Jay Rosen, citizen journalists are "the people formerly known as the audience," who "were on the receiving stop of a media system that ran ane style, in a broadcasting pattern, with high entry fees and a few firms competing to speak very loudly while the rest of the population listened in isolation from one another— and who today are not in a state of affairs like that at all. ... The people formerly known as the audience are only the public made realer, less fictional, more than able, less anticipated."[31]

Abraham Zapruder, who filmed the assassination of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy with a home-movie camera, is sometimes presented as an ancestor to citizen journalists.[32] Egyptian denizen Wael Abbas was awarded several international reporting prizes for his blog Misr Digital (Digital Egypt) and a video he publicized of two policemen beating a motorcoach commuter helped atomic number 82 to their confidence.[33]

During nine/xi many eyewitness accounts of the terrorist attacks on the Globe Merchandise Center came from citizen journalists. Images and stories from citizen journalists close to the Earth Trade Center offered content that played a major role in the story.[34] [35]

In 2004, when the nine.ane-magnitude underwater earthquake caused a huge tsunami in Banda Aceh Indonesia and across the Indian Ocean, a weblog-based virtual network of previously unrelated bloggers emerged that covered the news in real-time, and became a vital source for the traditional media for the starting time week afterwards the tsunami.[36] A large amount of news footage from many people who experienced the tsunami was widely broadcast,[37] as well every bit a skillful deal of "on the scene" denizen reporting and blogger analysis that was subsequently picked up by the major media outlets worldwide.[36]

Subsequent to the citizen journalism coverage of the disaster and aftermath, researchers have suggested that denizen journalists may, in fact, play a critical role in the disaster warning system itself, potentially with higher reliability than the networks of tsunami warning equipment based on engineering science alone which so crave estimation by disinterested third parties.[38]

The microblog Twitter played an of import role during the 2009 Iranian election protests, after foreign journalists had finer been "barred from reporting". Twitter delayed scheduled maintenance during the protests that would take shut down coverage in Iran due to the role it played in public communication.[39]

Social media platforms such as blogs, YouTube, and Twitter encourage and facilitate appointment with other citizens who participate in creating content through commenting, liking, linking, and sharing. The bulk of the content produced by these amateur news bloggers was not original content, but curated information monitored and edited by these various bloggers. There has been a pass up in the amateur news blogger due to social media platforms that are much easier to run and maintain, allowing individuals to easily share and create and content.[26]

Wikimedia Foundation hosts a participatory journalism web site, Wikinews.[forty]

The 2021 Pulitzer Prize Winner in Special Citations and Awards was awarded to Darnella Frazier, who recorded the murder of George Floyd on her phone.[41]

Citizen journalism in a worldwide context [edit]

Republic of india [edit]

I don't believe in citizen journalists. I say give me citizen doctors and citizen lawyers and I'll give yous denizen journalists.

Shekhar Gupta[42]

India has a broad media landscape expanding at "double-digit growth rates" [43] in comparison to the Due west. Issues surrounding homo rights violations, violence against women and everyday witness accounts.[44] [43] Most notably, images shared on Twitter during the 2008 Mumbai attacks is an case of denizen journalism in India.[43]

Iraq [edit]

In 2004 Daylight Mag sent a box of disposable cameras to be distributed to civilians living in Baghdad and Fallujah. These were published in May 2004 forth with the work of seminal documentarians such as Susan Meiselas, Roger Hutchings, etc. In June 2004 Fred Ritchen and Pixel Press teamed up with Daylight to create a touring exhibition of the images and captions which went to diverse institutions around the United States including: The Council on Strange Relations, The Middle for Photography Woodstock, New York University, Union College, Michigan Academy, and Central Michigan University before being donated to the Annal of Documentary Art at Duke University.[ commendation needed ]

Britain [edit]

Citizen Journalism provides a platform for individuals to exist considered and acknowledged on a global scale. The apportionment of information and news does non fully divulge the accurate perceptions of what is going on in the world. For case, On Our Radar contains reporting mechanisms and trained residents that reveal their voices while questioning the reluctance journalism has when because what voices are heard and are not, based in London. On Our Radar has undertaken in making the voices in Sierra Leone heard in regards to Ebola, revealing that it independent easy admission to vital sources of  data and opened more opportunities for questions and reports.[45]

Depending on the state one resides in, equally societies evolve, grow, and depend more than on online media outlets in that location is an increase of informed individuals, specially with topics regarding politics and regime news. Through such evolution, citizen journalism has the capability to reach an audition that has non had the privilege of receiving college instruction and still remain informed well-nigh what is surrounding them and their corresponding country.[46] Equally demonstrated in light of demanding and distorted information given to the mass public and cleared by strong demonstrations of the capabilities of denizen journalism. Citizen journalism is a platform that provides a solution to the mistrust the public has towards the government as discrepancies arise from governmental statements and actions.

In 2020, a network of local Denizen Journalist publications, the Bylines Network, was founded, and has since spread to include 7 regional branches.[47]

China [edit]

Denizen journalism has created much change and influence inside Chinese media and lodge in which its online activeness is very much controlled. The interconnection built from denizen journalism and mainstream journalism in China has allotted politically and socially charged information to exist distributed to promote progressive changes and serves as national sentiments. In doing so, the mass public of Communist china has the opportunities to move around the controlled and monitored online presence and the information it contains.[48]

Citizen journalists face many repercussions when unpackaging the truth and reach domestic and global audiences. Well-nigh if not all of these repercussions result from government officials and law enforcement from the journalists respective countries. Citizen journalists are needed and depended on by the mass public but are viewed equally an imminent threat to their governments. The public has had the resources to pursue this level of journalism from their surroundings and based on real life perspectives that lack censorship and influence from a higher entity. The various forms citizen journalism is formed has outdated many news and media sources equally result of the authentic approach denizen journalists carry out.[49]

During the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, fraudulent pictures encouraging people to pose equally reporters and abuse liberty of press regulations to obstruct the police were widely circulated on social media with the aim to discredit citizen journalists.[50]

In the context of China and the national pandemic rooted from the coronavirus, many voices were censored and limited when it came to citizen journalists. This occurred in the process of visually and vocally documenting the social climate of China in regards to the coronavirus. For instance, a Chinese citizen journalist posted videos of Wuhan, Red china as the outbreak had been spreading globally. As a effect the journalist was stopped and detained past the police force and was not released for two months. In sharing their feel beingness detained after being released the tone it was expressed in was marketed. This denizen journalist experience is one amid more of who were similarly detained and censored.[51]

Criticisms [edit]

Objectivity [edit]

Citizen journalists likewise may be activists within the communities they write about. This has drawn some criticism from traditional media institutions such as The New York Times, which have accused proponents of public journalism of abandoning the traditional goal of objectivity. Many traditional journalists view citizen journalism with some skepticism, believing that merely trained journalists can understand the exactitude and ideals involved in reporting news. See, e.g., Nicholas Lemann, Vincent Maher, and Tom Grubisich.

An academic paper by Vincent Maher, the head of the New Media Lab at Rhodes Academy, outlined several weaknesses in the claims made by citizen journalists, in terms of the "iii mortiferous Due east's", referring to ethics, economics, and epistemology.[52]

An assay past linguistic communication and linguistics professor, Patricia Bou-Franch, plant that some citizen journalists resorted to corruption-sustaining discourses naturalizing violence against women. She establish that these discourses were then challenged by others who questioned the gendered ideologies of male violence against women.[53]

Quality [edit]

An article in 2005 by Tom Grubisich reviewed ten new citizen journalism sites and found many of them lacking in quality and content.[54] Grubisich followed up a year subsequently with, "Potemkin Village Redux."[55] He found that the best sites had improved editorially and were even nearing profitability, just simply by not expensing editorial costs. Also according to the article, the sites with the weakest editorial content were able to expand aggressively because they had stronger financial resources.

Another article published on Pressthink examined Backfence, a citizen journalism site with three initial locations in the D.C. area, which reveals that the site has only attracted express citizen contributions.[56] The author concludes that, "in fact, clicking through Backfence'due south pages feels similar frontier land -– remote, oftentimes lonely, zoned for people just not home to any. The site recently launched for Arlington, Virginia. However, without more settlers, Backfence may air current up creating more ghost towns."

David Simon, a former reporter for The Baltimore Sun and writer-producer of the television series The Wire criticized the concept of citizen journalism—claiming that unpaid bloggers who write as a hobby cannot supercede trained, professional, seasoned journalists.

"I am offended to think that anyone, anywhere believes American institutions as insulated, self-preserving and self-justifying as police departments, schoolhouse systems, legislatures and chief executives can be held to gathered facts past amateurs pursuing the task without compensation, training or for that matter, sufficient standing to brand public officials even care to whom information technology is they are lying to."

An editorial published by The Digital Journalist web magazine expressed a similar position, advocating to cancel the term "denizen journalist", and replacing it with "denizen news gatherer".

"Professional journalists cover fires, floods, crime, the legislature, and the White House every day. In that location is either a fire line or police force line, or security, or the Secret Service who allow them to pass upon displaying credentials vetted by the departments or agencies concerned. A denizen journalist, an amateur, will always exist on the outside of those lines. Imagine the White Business firm throwing open its gates to admit everybody with a camera telephone to a presidential event."[57]

While the fact that denizen journalists tin study in real fourth dimension and are not discipline to oversight opens them to criticism about the accuracy of their reporting, news stories presented by mainstream media also misreport facts occasionally that are reported correctly by denizen journalists. As low every bit 32% of the American population have a off-white amount of trust in the media.[58]

Effects on traditional journalism [edit]

Journalism has been affected significantly due to citizen journalism. This is considering citizen journalism allows people to mail service every bit much content as they desire, whenever they want. In order to stay competitive, traditional news sources are forcing their journalist to compete. This ways that announcer at present take to write, edit and add pictures into their content and they must practise so at a rapid step, equally it is perceived by news companies that it's essential for journalist to produce content at the same rate that citizens can post content on the internet. This is hard though, equally many news companies are facing budget cuts and cannot afford to pay journalists the proper corporeality for the amount of work they exercise. Despite the uncertainties of a job in journalism and ascent tuition costs at that place has been a 35% increase in journalism majors throughout the past few years according to Astra Taylor in her book The People'due south Platform.[59]

Legal repercussions [edit]

Edward Greenberg, a New York City litigator,[60] notes higher vulnerability of unprofessional journalists in court compared to the professional ones:

"And so-chosen shield laws, which protect reporters from revealing sources, vary from country to state. On occasion, the protection is dependent on whether the person [who] asserted the claim is in fact a journalist. There are many cases at both the state and federal levels where judges decide but who is/is non a journalist. Cases involving libel frequently hinge on whether the thespian was or was non a member of the "press"."[57]

The view stated above does not mean that professional journalists are fully protected by shield laws. In the 1972 Branzburg v. Hayes case the Supreme Court of the United states invalidated the use of the First Amendment as a defense for reporters summoned to testify before a g jury. In 2005, the reporter'due south privilege of Judith Miller and Matthew Cooper was rejected past the appellate courtroom.

Possible future [edit]

Person using a smartphone to take photographs

Citizen journalism increased during the final decade of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first century, associated with the cosmos of the internet which introduced new ways in communicating and engaging news. In 2004 Leonard Witt wrote in the National Civic Review, "the voices of a range of citizens are being heard loud and articulate on the Internet, mostly through Weblogs." Due to this shift in applied science, individuals were able to access more news than previously and at a much faster rate. This larger quantity also made it so there was a larger diverseness of sources which people were able to consume media and news.[2]

Natalie Fenton discusses the role of citizen journalism within the digital age and has iii characteristics associated with the topic: speed and infinite, multiplicity and poly-centrality, and interactivity and participation.[61]

Proponents and facilitators [edit]

Dan Gillmor, the sometime technology columnist for the San Jose Mercury News, founded a nonprofit, the Center for Denizen Media,[62] (2005–2009) to help promote it.

Professor Charles Nesson, William F. Weld Professor of Constabulary at Harvard Law Schoolhouse and the founder of the Berkman Heart for Internet & Gild, chairs the Advisory Lath for Jamaican citizen journalism startup On the Footing News Reports.[63]

In March 2014, blogger and survivalist author James Wesley Rawles launched a web site that provides gratis press credentials for citizen journalists called the Constitution First Subpoena Printing Association (CFAPA).[64] [65] According to David Sheets of the Lodge for Professional person Journalists, Rawles keeps no records on who gets these credentials.[64]

Maurice Ali founded ane of the first international citizen announcer associations, the International Association of Independent Journalists Inc. (IAIJ), in 2003. The association through its President (Maurice Ali) published studies and articles on citizen journalism, attended and spoken at UNESCO[66] and Un events[67] [68] as advocates of citizen journalism worldwide.

See also [edit]

  • Scarlet picking
  • Denizen Kate
  • Collaborative journalism
  • Theorize
  • Crowdsourcing
  • Democratic journalism
  • Demotix
  • False news
  • Filemobile
  • Global Voices Online
  • Independent Media Center
  • JPG (mag)
  • Listing of journalists killed in Syria
  • Media commonwealth
  • Meporter
  • OhmyNews
  • On the Ground News Reports
  • Open up-source journalism
  • Raqqa Is Beingness Slaughtered Silently
  • Social news
  • Due south E Europe Media Organisation
  • Wiki journalism
  • Youth Ki Awaaz

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https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21670811.2014.1002513?src=recsys&journalCode=rdij20

External links [edit]

  • List of Participatory News Media sites at Curlie.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_journalism

Posted by: carterancralows1973.blogspot.com

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